#+title: Arabic CheatSheet
#+author: Musa Al-hassy
#+email: alhassy@gmail.com
#+include: ~/CheatSheet/CheatSheetSetup.org
#+todo: Todo | spacing LaTeX
#+filetags: arabic cheat-sheet
#+fileimage: arabic-irab.png 100% 100%
#+description: Quick reference for the Arabic language; Modern Standard Arabic
#+latex_header: \def\cheatsheeturl{https://www.alhassy.com/arabic-cheat-sheet}

#+latex_header: \usepackage[novoc]{arabluatex}
#+latex: \linespread{1.25}
# http://www.omniglot.com/language/phrases/colorlessgreenideas.htm

:Emacs_Setup:
# +latex: Amiri: \sample% arabluatex defaults to Amiri
# For other neato fonts, see: https://tex.stackexchange.com/a/316719
# (May need to install fonts!)
#
# An extended version of TeX using Lua to compile.
#+begin_example emacs-lisp :exports none
(setq org-latex-pdf-process '("lualatex %f"))
#+end_example
:End:

#+macro: arb @@latex: \arb{$1}@@ @@html: <span dir="ltr">$1</span>@@
#+macro: blue @@latex: \textbf{\color{blue}\arb{$1}}@@ @@html: <span style="color:blue;" dir="ltr">$1</span>@@
#+macro: orange @@latex: \textbf{\color{orange}\arb{$1}}@@ @@html: <span style="color:orange;" dir="ltr">$1</span>@@

# MA: I wrote this using \arb{...}, then I did a regexp find replace with
# M-% \\arb{\([^\\]*\)}�arb(\1)
# So that the result looks nice in both LaTeX and HTML.
# Note: It also looks nice in Emacs since I have Org-macro syntax prettified-away.

# MA: Before generting the PDF, remember to:   M-x blog/preview/disable
# And to comment-out the date.
#+date: <2023-06-14 Wed>
#+options: toc:t


# MA:  (-let [enable-local-variables nil] (blog/publish-current-article))
#
# git mv arabic-cheat-sheet.pdf ~/blog/

* COMMENT Technical Words
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-Technical-Words
:END:

| Noun      | \342\211\210 | A person, place, or thing                     |
| Pronoun   | \342\211\210 | Words such as \342\200\234He, him, her, this, that, ...\342\200\235 |
| Verb      | \342\211\210 | An action word                                |
|           |   |                                               |
| Subject   | \342\211\210 | The topic of a sentence                       |
| Predicate | \342\211\210 | Information about the topic in a sentence     |
| Object    | \342\211\210 | The recipient of an action                    |

# Prepositions

* Abstract                                                           :ignore:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Abstract
:END:

#+latex: \iffalse

#+begin_center
#+html: This is a quick reference of concepts in the Arabic language.

badge:PDF|colorful_cheat_sheet|success|https://alhassy.com/arabic-cheat-sheet.pdf|read-the-docs

# badge:license|GNU_3|informational|https://www.gnu.org/licenses/gpl-3.0.en.html|read-the-docs
tweet:https://alhassy.com/arabic-cheat-sheet
badge:|buy_me_a_coffee|gray|https://www.buymeacoffee.com/alhassy|buy-me-a-coffee
#+end_center

# @@html: <br> @@

#+latex: \fi

* COMMENT Web reference                                              :ignore:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-Web-reference
:END:

#+macro: begin-ignore-html #+html: <!--
#+macro: end-ignore-html #+html: -->

#+latex: \vspace{-1em}
begin-ignore-html() To be terse, lots of content is not shown in this PDF but is
shown in the HTML version.  end-ignore-html()

* Sentences without Verbs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Sentences-without-Verbs
:END:

English sentences are usually of the form Subject + Verb + Object.  Recall that a verb is an \342\200\234action word\342\200\235; the subject
is the one doing the action; and the object is the one having the action done to them.
Arabic sentences do not need verbs! These are known as equational, non-verbal, sentences.

|          <c>           |   |           <c>           |
| blue:I am orange:Samir | \342\211\210 | orange( \330\263\331\205\331\212\330\261 ) blue( \330\247\331\206\330\247 ) |
| blue:He is orange:tall | \342\211\210 | orange( \330\267\331\210\331\212\331\204 ) blue( \331\207\331\210 ) |

Each sentence above has (1) a subject [the topic of the sentence: A noun or
 pronoun] @@latex: \\@@ and (2) a *orange:predicate* [information about the
 topic; e.g., a noun or an adjective].
+ Notice the English has \342\200\234am\342\200\235, which is not needed in Arabic.
+ A noun is a person, place, or thing.
+ A *blue:pronoun* is a word such as \342\200\234He, him, her, this, that, ...\342\200\235

# https://www.thesaurus.com/e/grammar/predicate-nominative-vs-predicate-adjectives/

The predicate can either be a (pro)noun that renames the subject ---as in
\arb{\330\263\331\205\331\212\330\261\331\217 \330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250\331\214} which "renames" the subject Samir to the subject doctor---; or
the predicate can be an adjective that describes the subject ---as in \arb{\330\263\331\205\331\212\330\261\331\217
\330\267\331\210\331\212\331\204\331\214}. If the predicate is a definite noun (discussed below!), then it does not
use nunation; e.g., \arb{\331\207\331\210 \330\247\331\204\330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250\331\217} He is the doctor.

* Adjectives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Adjectives
:END:

Adjectives, \342\200\234descriptive words\342\200\235, follow nouns and must agree with them in gender, number, definiteness, and case.
The agreement is what distinguishes a noun-adjective phrase from an equational sentence!
| the new book     | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\247\331\204\331\203\330\252\330\247\330\250\331\217 \330\247\331\204\330\254\330\257\331\212\330\257\331\217) |
| The book is new. | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\247\331\204\332\251\330\252\330\247\330\250\331\217 \330\254\330\257\331\212\330\257\331\217.) |

* Todo COMMENT Definite for adjectives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-Definite-for-adjectives
:END:

You have now seen the three ways in which a word in Arabic is m ade definite. The first is the definite article. The
second is by being in a definite idaafa. The third is by attaching a pronoun suffix.  Any adj ectives m odifying a
definite noun m ust be definite and are m ade definite with, and only with, the definite article.

* Questions
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Questions
:END:

The question marker arb(\331\207\331\216\331\204\331\222) is placed at the start of a statement to turn it into a question.

| You are a student. | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\247\331\206\330\252 \330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250.)    |
| Are you a student? | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\207\331\204 \330\247\331\206\330\252 \330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250\330\237) |

+ arb(\331\205\330\247) has many uses in Arabic, one of them being the question word \342\200\234what\342\200\235 ---which can only be used with things,
  not people!

+ arb(\331\205\331\216\331\206\331\222) [`men'] means \342\200\234who\342\200\235 and is used to refer to people.
  \342\210\222 (Becareful not to confuse this with the preposition from, arb( \331\205\331\220\331\206\331\222 ) [`min']!)

+ arb(\330\247\331\224\331\212\331\222\331\206\331\216) means \342\200\234where\342\200\235.

| What is this?       | \342\211\210 | arb( \331\205\330\247 \331\207\331\260\330\260\330\247\330\237 )     |
| Who is this?        | \342\211\210 | arb( \331\205\331\206 \331\207\330\260\330\247\330\237 )    |
| Where are you from? | \342\211\210 | arb( \331\205\331\220\331\206\331\222 \330\247\331\224\331\212\331\206 \330\247\331\224\331\206\330\252\331\216\330\237 ) |

* Inflection & Conjugation
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Inflection-Conjugation
:END:

The \342\200\234shape\342\200\235 of an Arabic word changes to tell us information about the word.
- \342\200\234Conjugation\342\200\235: Verbs change with who is doing the action.
- \342\200\234Case\342\200\235, arb( \330\247\331\204\330\247\330\271\330\261\330\247\330\250 ): Nouns, and adjectives, change to tell us whether they are doing an action, are having
  something done to them, or own/possess something.
# - \342\200\234Case\342\200\235, arb( \330\247\331\204\330\247\330\271\330\261\330\247\330\250 ): Nouns, and adjectives, change to tell us whether they are doing an action (\342\200\234Nominative\342\200\235!), are having
#   something done to them (\342\200\234Accusative!\342\200\235), or own/possess something (\342\200\234Genitive!\342\200\235).

For example, in English, there are 3 ways to refer to oneself: green:I, red:me, blue:my.
| *blue:My* cat saw red:me, and green:I jumped! |
The shape of the word depends on its case. Here's the rules:
- (Nominative!) When I am doing something, I say: green: I did it
- (Accusative!) When something is being done to me, I say: It was done to red:me.
- (Genitive!) When I have an item, I say: blue:My thing....

So, in English, the word used to refer to myself changes depending on what is happening green:by me, red:to me, or
blue:of me / what I own.

# Just as nouns, and adjectives, change with case;
# likewise, verbs change with who is doing them (i.e., number and gender).
# This is known as /conjugation/.
#
#
# Grammatical cases are a way of organising nouns (and some adjectives)
# according to their roles in a sentence. In Arabic, case is denoted by
# adding a small symbol to the end of the word. We say /the noun is inflected for case/.
#
# In many languages, nouns and pronouns are inflected for case, meaning they change their form depending on their grammatical function in a sentence.

# The most common grammatical cases are:
#
# + Nominative case: used for the subject of a sentence
# + Accusative case: used for the direct object of a verb
# + Genitive case: used to show possession or relationships between nouns
# + Vocative case: used for addressing someone directly
# + Dative case: used for the indirect object of a verb, or to indicate the recipient of an action

* Nominative Case
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Nominative-Case
:END:

Case refers to the form a word ---mostly nouns and adjectives--- take depending on their function in a sentence.  The
subject of any sentence will always be in the nominative case, which is indicated by placing a arb(\331\200\331\217\331\200) at the end of
the word. The only other time a word will be in the nominative is if it is the predicate of a non-verbal sentence.

|        <c>         |   |        <c>        |   |         <c>         |
| He is the student  | \342\211\210 | arb( \331\207\331\210 \330\247\331\204\330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250\331\217 )  |   |   huwa al-talib-u   |
|  He is a student   | \342\211\210 |  arb( \331\207\331\210 \330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250\331\214 )  |   |    huwa talib-un    |


Pronouns, such as arb(\330\247\331\206\330\247} and \arb{\331\207\330\260\330\247), do not have case endings.
| I am the teacher   | \342\211\210 | arb( \330\247\331\206\330\247 \330\247\331\204\331\205\330\257\330\261\330\263\331\217 )  |   | ana al-mudaras-u

* COMMENT Case gets real on some words: arb(\330\247\330\250\330\214 \330\247\330\256\330\214 \330\260\331\210)
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-Case-gets-real-on-some-words-arb
:END:

Some words are so short that case becomes an actual letter and not just a short symbol!

The small vowel endings arb(\331\200\331\217\331\200\330\214 \331\200\331\220\331\200\330\214 \331\200\331\216\331\200} actually become long vowel letters: \arb{\331\200\331\217\331\210\330\214 \331\200\331\220\331\212\330\214 \331\200\331\216\330\247).

One such word is father, arb(\330\247\330\250):
| This is Ahmad's father.      | arb(\331\207\330\260\330\247 \330\247\330\250\331\210 \330\247\330\255\331\205\330\257.)       |
| I saw Ahmad's father.        | arb(\330\261\330\247\331\224\331\212\331\222\330\252\331\217 \330\247\330\250\330\247 \330\247\330\255\331\205\330\257.)       |
| I spoke with Ahmad's father. | arb(\330\252\330\255\330\257\330\253\331\222\330\252\331\217 \331\205\330\271 \330\247\330\250\331\212 \330\247\330\255\331\205\330\257.) |

Another important word is arb(\330\260\331\210) which means the one who.
| The student with black hair is Egyptian.  | arb(\330\247\331\204\330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250 \330\260\331\210 \330\247\331\204\330\264\330\271\330\261 \330\247\331\204\330\243\330\263\331\210\330\257 \331\205\330\265\330\261\331\212.)      |
| I know the student with black hair.       | arb( \330\243\330\271\330\261\331\201 \330\247\331\204\330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250 \330\260\330\247 \330\247\331\204\330\264\330\271\330\261 \330\247\331\204\330\243\330\263\331\210\330\257.)      |
| I spoke with the student with black hair. | arb( \330\252\331\203\331\204\331\205\330\252 \331\205\330\271 \330\247\331\204\330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250 \330\260\331\212 \330\247\331\204\330\264\330\271\330\261 \330\247\331\204\330\243\330\263\331\210\330\257.) |

Note that arb(\330\260\331\210) is masculine singular. The feminine form is
arb(\330\260\330\247\330\252) and does not change with case.

:More:
Here's the above three words in one sentence:
| Your father saw your brother with the black hair. |
| arb(\330\261\330\247\331\224\333\214 \330\247\331\224\330\250\331\210\331\203 \330\247\331\224\330\256\330\247\331\203 \330\260\331\210 \330\247\331\204\330\264\330\271\330\261 \330\247\331\204\330\247\331\224\330\263\331\210\330\257)                     |
:End:

* COMMENT When to write Shadda
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-When-to-write-Shadda
:END:

When two letters occur in a single, they become one with shaddah, if the first has sukuun and the second carries another diacritical mark, hence \331\206\331\222 + \331\206\331\216 become \331\206\331\221\331\216.

E.g., \330\245\331\220 + \331\206\331\222 + \331\206\331\216 = \330\245\331\220\331\206\331\221\331\216.
* arb(\331\205\330\271\330\261\331\201\330\251) Definiteness
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: arb-Definiteness
:END:

A word is considered definite arb(\331\205\330\271\330\261\331\201\330\251) when it refers to something specific in
the world, and indefinite arb(\331\206\331\203\330\261\330\251) when it does not. For example, \342\200\234a car\342\200\235 or
\342\200\234cars\342\200\235 do not refer to anything specific in the world and thus both examples are
indefinite. Conversely, \342\200\234my car\342\200\235 or \342\200\234my cars\342\200\235 both refer to specific / known
objects in the world and thus both examples are definite.

When is a word definite?
0. If it is a proper name such as arb(\330\247\330\255\331\205\330\257).
1. If it has the definite article arb(\330\247\331\204)/\342\200\234the\342\200\235 in front of it.
2. If it is a pronoun ---i.e., it already refers to something.
   Such as arb(\331\207\331\210) or arb(\331\207\330\260\330\247).
3. If it is owned by something; e.g., book is definite in both John's book (Idaafa) and his book (Possessive pronoun
   ending). Both concepts are discussed below!

# We write arb(\330\247\331\204) in front of a word to make it /definite/.

** COMMENT Moon & Sun Letters
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-Moon-Sun-Letters
:END:

The letters of the Arabic alphabet are divided into two groups with respect to this particle; the sun letters and the
moon letters. If Al is prefixed to a noun which starts with a moon letter, the \331\204\330\247\331\205 is pronounced as expected (as in
al-Qamar). And if it is prefixed to a noun which begins with a sun letter, the \331\204\330\247\331\205 will geminate with that letter (as in
ash-Shams).

\330\241 \330\250 \330\254 \330\255 \330\256 \330\271 \330\272 \331\201 \331\202 \331\203 \331\205 \331\207 \331\210 \331\212

Moon Letters

\330\252 \330\253 \330\257 \330\260 \330\261 \330\262 \330\263 \330\264 \330\265 \330\266 \330\267 \330\270 \331\204 \331\206

Sun Letters

* Nunnation/Tanween
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Nunnation-Tanween
:END:

Arabic does not have an indefinite article: To make a word indefinite, we double its case ending; with the second
instance pronounced as arb(\331\206), \342\200\234n\342\200\235.  This doubling of case endings, and adding the sound \342\200\234n\342\200\235, is known as Tanween.  For
the nominative case, the arb(\331\200\331\200\331\217\331\200\331\200) is written twice but often written in the shape arb(\331\200\331\200\331\214\331\200\331\200).

An indefinite adjective (usually one without arb(\330\247\331\204)) will have tanween:

| The student is new | \342\211\210 | arb( \330\247\331\204\330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250\331\217 \330\254\330\257\331\212\330\257\331\214 ) |   | al-talib-u jadeed-un |

* Case endings of Equational Sentences
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Case-endings-of-Equational-Sentences
:END:

From the preceding discussions: Both the subject and predicate of an equational
sentence should be in the nominative! Remember that the subject can be any
(pro)noun and the predicate is any (pro)noun or adjective ---if it is an
adjective, then it is indefinite and so ends in arb(\331\200\331\200\331\214\331\200\331\200).
#
# https://www.thesaurus.com/e/grammar/predicate-adjectives/
#
# Moreover, the predicate is either definite and so ends in arb(\331\200\331\200\331\217\331\200\331\200), or is indefinite and so ends in arb(\331\200\331\200\331\214\331\200\331\200).

* COMMENT arb(\330\247\331\224\331\216\331\204) is also used to refer to an entire class of things
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-arb-is-also-used-to-refer-to-an-entire-class-of-things
:END:

arb(\330\247\331\224\331\216\331\204) causes its noun to refer to something that has already been mentioned, or is specific.
For example:
| arb( \330\243\330\261\330\263\331\204\331\206\330\247 \330\245\331\204\331\211 \331\201\330\261\330\271\331\210\331\206 \330\261\330\263\331\210\331\204\330\247. \331\201\330\271\330\265\331\211 \331\201\330\261\330\271\331\210\331\206 \330\247\331\204\330\261\330\263\331\210\331\204 )                        |
| We sent to Pharaoh a messenger. But Pharaoh disobeyed the messenger. |

# Class nouns!
However, arb(\330\247\331\224\331\216\331\204) can also refer to an entire class of things ---thereby making its word indefinite!1
| all praise (not any particular praise!) is for Allah | arb( \330\247\331\204\330\255\331\205\330\257 \331\204\331\204\331\221\331\260\331\207 )           |
| verily Man (i.e., all of mankind!) is in loss        | arb(  \330\245\331\206 \330\247\331\204\330\245\331\206\330\263\330\247\331\206 \331\204\331\201\331\212 \330\256\330\263\330\261 ) |

* Helping Vowels for  arb(\330\247\331\224\331\216\331\204)
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Helping-Vowels-for-arb
:END:

1. The hamza-fatha of the definite article arb(\330\247\331\224\331\216\331\204) will always be replaced
   by the final vowel of the preceding word; thus the two words sound like one word!

   | You (m) are the director | \342\211\210 | arb( \330\247\331\206\330\252\331\216 \330\247\331\204\331\205\331\217\330\257\331\212\330\261 )  | antal-mudiir  |
   | You (f) are the director | \342\211\210 | arb( \330\247\331\206\330\252\331\220 \330\247\331\204\331\205\331\217\330\257\331\212\330\261\330\251 ) | antil-mudiira |

2. When arb(\330\247\331\224\331\216\331\204} follows a \342\200\234sun letter\342\200\235, then the \arb{\331\204) is also not pronounced.

   | You are the student | \342\211\210 | arb( \330\247\331\206\330\252\331\216 \330\247\331\204\330\267\331\221\330\247\331\204\330\250 ) | antat-talib |

3. Most words end in vowels, since Arabic case endings are vowels.
  If a word does not end in a vowel, such as arb(\331\207\331\216\331\204\331\222), then
  we add a helping kasra vowel:

   | Is the director an idiot? | \342\211\210 | arb( \331\207\331\216\331\204\331\220 \330\247\331\204\331\205\331\217\330\257\331\212\330\261\331\217 \330\250\331\204\331\212\330\257\330\237 ) | halil-mudiiru baled? |

  The only exception to this rule is the word arb(\331\205\331\216\331\206\331\222), which gets a helping
  fatha vowel.
   # This elision is known as Alif-Wasla; but is usually only written in the Quran.

* arb(\330\247\330\263\331\205\330\247\330\241 \330\247\331\204\330\245\330\264\330\247\330\261\330\251) @@latex:\hspace{1em)@@ ---\342\200\234This is a X\342\200\235 ---\342\200\234This X\342\200\235 ---\342\200\234This is the X\342\200\235
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: arb-latex-hspace-1em-This-is-a-X-This-X-This-is-the-X
:END:

1. \342\200\234This\342\200\235 arb(\331\207\331\260\330\260\330\247) is used to refer to things that are close by, whereas \342\200\234that\342\200\235 arb(\330\260\330\247\331\204\331\220\331\203\331\216) refers to objects that are
   distant or is used in a constrast: arb( \331\207\331\260\330\260\330\247 \330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250\331\214 \331\210\330\260\331\204\331\220\331\203\331\216 \331\205\331\217\330\257\330\261\331\221\331\220\330\263\331\214 ), This is a student and that is a teacher.
   The feminine forms of \342\200\234this\342\200\235 and \342\200\234that\342\200\235 are
   arb(\331\207\331\260\330\260\331\220\331\207\331\220) and arb(\330\252\331\220\331\204\331\222\331\203\331\216).

2. Whenever any of these 4 words is followed by a definite noun, we have one unit
   meaning \342\200\234this noun\342\200\235.
   - Such phrases often serve as the subjects of an equational sentence.

3. We can separate this one unit into two pieces by inserting a pronoun
   in-the-middle, which gives us \342\200\234This is the noun\342\200\235.

#+latex: \vspace{.5em}

| 1.  | This is a book.     | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\207\330\260\330\247 \331\203\330\252\330\247\330\250.)     |
| 2a. | this book...        | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\207\330\260\330\247 \330\247\331\204\331\203\330\252\330\247\330\250...)  |
| 2b. | This book is heavy. | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\207\330\260\330\247 \330\247\331\204\331\203\330\252\330\247\330\250\331\217 \330\253\331\202\331\212\331\204\331\214.) |
|-----+---------------------+---+--------------------|
| 3.  | This is the book.   | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\207\330\260\330\247 \331\207\331\210 \330\247\331\204\331\203\330\252\330\247\330\250\331\217.)  |

* Todo COMMENT Shortenenings!
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-Shortenenings
:END:

the Arabic word 'this': \331\207\330\260\330\247 \342\200\234hadh\304\201\342\200\235, which, when combined with a definite phrase, has been known to become shortened from \331\207\330\260\330\247 \330\247\331\204\330\250\331\212\330\252 \342\200\234hadh\304\201 al-bayt\342\200\235 (this house) to \331\207\331\204\330\250\331\212\330\252 \342\200\234hal-bayt\342\200\235.

Weingreen also states that the original form of the Hebrew H\304\201 was, in fact, Hal[13]. Hebrew, then, dropped the final L to achieve H\304\201 and Arabic softened the H to a Hamza to achieve Al-[14].

Some grammarians argue against the citation of \342\200\234hal-bayt\342\200\235, stating that it is merely a shortening of the demonstrative
pronoun.

* The Accusative Case
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: The-Accusative-Case
:END:

The Accusative Case is mostly used for the direct objects of verbs:
It is indicated by a fatha.
For example,
|   | I studied the book. |
| \342\211\210 | arb(\330\257\331\216\330\261\331\216\330\263\331\222\330\252\331\217 \330\247\331\204\331\203\330\252\330\247\330\250\331\216.)   |

Notice that above we did not write arb(\330\247\331\224\331\206\330\247), \342\200\234I\342\200\235, since verbs change shape to tell us who is doing the action!
(Changes to nouns is called case; changes to verbs is called conjugation!)

There is one more rule.  To place an indefinite word not ending in arb(\330\251} in the accusative, just attach a \arb{\330\247\331\213)
---which makes the sound \342\200\234an\342\200\235.  E.g., I studied a book becomes arb(\330\257\330\261\330\263\330\252\331\217 \332\251\330\252\330\247\330\250\330\247\331\213).

* Genitive Case
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Genitive-Case
:END:

The genitive case is used for a word following a preposition or a word occuring
as the second or later term in an Idaafa construction (discussed below).

Prepositions are words like arb(\330\271\331\206\330\214 \330\247\331\204\333\214\330\214 \331\204\331\220\330\214 \330\250\331\220\330\214 \331\201\331\212\330\214 \330\271\331\204\333\214\330\214 \331\205\331\220\331\206\330\214 \331\202\330\250\331\204): They are written
\342\200\234pre\342\200\235ceeding a word and tell us something about its \342\200\234position\342\200\235.
# There are also a large number of words that behave like prepositions,
# such as arb(\331\202\330\250\331\204), and the words following them are always in the genitive. Always.

The genitive case ending is a final kasra for a definite word and two kasras for
an indefinite word, with the second kasra pronounded as arb(\331\206) as in the Nominative case.

** Let's explain the following example. :ignore:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Let's-explain-the-following-example
:END:
Let's explain the following example.

|                 <c>                  |
|        arb(\330\247\331\206\330\252\331\216 \330\247\331\204\331\205\331\217\330\257\331\212\330\261\331\217 \331\201\331\212 \331\207\331\260\330\260\330\247 \330\247\331\204\331\205\332\251\330\252\330\250\331\220)        |
| You are the director in this office. |

Here arb(\330\247\331\206\330\252 \330\247\331\204\331\205\330\257\331\212\330\261) is an equational sentence followed by a prepositional phrase.
Both the subject and predicate of an equational sentence should be in the nominative,
but arb(\330\247\331\206\330\252} is a pronoun and so does not take case. Moreover, since \arb{\330\243\331\204\331\205\330\257\331\212\330\261) is
definite, it takes a single dhamma. Finally, since arb(\331\207\330\260\330\247 \330\247\331\204\331\205\331\203\330\252\330\250) is a demonstrative
followed by a definite it is treated grammatically as a single word, which means
the (genitive) case ending goes at the very end of arb(\330\247\331\204\331\205\331\203\330\252\330\250).
* Idaafa
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Idaafa
:END:

Idaafa means \342\200\234addition\342\200\234, or \342\200\234annexation\342\200\234, and it is used to indicate possesion in Arabic ---just like how English uses 's to indicate possession.

|   | John's book      |
| \342\211\210 | the book of John |
| \342\211\210 | arb(\331\203\330\252\330\247\330\250\331\217 \330\254\331\210\331\206)   |

# It behaves very similar to the English /'s/ ;
Idaafa, possesion, is formed by putting nouns next to each other ---to make a super-duper big noun, formally called a
noun-phrase. That is all.

** Noun-phrases of Idaafa
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Noun-phrases-of-Idaafa
:END:
Noun-phrases are similar to nouns:
   - This noun-phrase is (in)definite exactly when its final
     noun is (in)definite.
   - This noun-phrase takes case endings on its first noun.
     * All other words in the noun-phrase must be in the genitive case.
     * Only the final noun can have nunnation.

:Misc:
2. Possession can be nested.
3. The owned item (i.e., the first term) never has \342\200\234the\342\200\235/arb(\330\247\331\204) before it!
   # 1. Finally, since the thing being owned belongs to the owner, an Idaafa is
   #    (in)definite exactly when the final term of the idaafa is (in)definite
   #    ---moreover, the first term of an idaafa never has the definite article!
4. \342\200\234the\342\200\235/arb(\330\247\331\204) can only come before the owner (i.e., the very last term).
   This makes the entire Idaafa definite. That is, only the last term of an Idaafa can
   have nunnation.
5. The owned item, the first word of an Idaafa, is definite even though it
   does not itself have the definite article! Why? Becuase it's not an arbitrary
   item: We know it's owner! As such, it can never have nunnation, but can be in any
   case), whereas all other terms in an Idaafa are in the genitive case (since the
   involve the preposition \342\200\234of\342\200\235!)
:End:

|   | This is an office director's car         |
| \342\211\210 | This is a car of a director of an office |
| \342\211\210 | arb(\331\207\330\260\331\207 \330\263\331\212\330\247\330\261\330\251\331\217 \331\205\330\257\331\212\330\261\331\220 \331\205\332\251\330\252\330\250\331\215)                  |

** Noun-phrases and \342\200\234this\342\200\235/\342\200\234that\342\200\235
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Noun-phrases-and-this-that
:END:

Remember that demonstratives form noun-phrases and so can be used
in-place of a noun in an Idaafa.

|   |                  <c>                   |
|   | The director of this office is stupid. |
| \342\211\210 |          arb(\331\205\331\217\330\257\331\212\330\261\331\217 \331\207\330\260\330\247 \330\247\331\204\331\205\331\203\330\252\330\250\331\220 \330\250\331\204\331\212\330\257\331\214)           |

This is an equational sentence. The subject is arb(\331\205\330\257\331\212\330\261 \331\207\330\260\330\247 \330\247\331\204\331\205\332\251\330\252\330\250)
which needs to be in the nominative case, and it is
definite since the last word is definite, thus only one dhamma needs to be
added (to the first noun; and the last noun gets no nunnation).
The topic is arb(\330\250\331\204\331\212\330\257) which must also be in the nominative indefinite.

* Descriptions for Idaafa
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Descriptions-for-Idaafa
:END:

In English, a descriptive word can come before the owned item: John's heavy book. In Arabic, adjectives must follow the
Idaafa and cannot interrupt it: arb(\332\251\330\252\330\247\330\250 \330\254\331\210\331\206 \330\247\331\204\330\253\331\202\331\212\331\204).  For example, here is an equational sentence whose subject is a
3-term Idaafa followed by the adjective Arabic (remember only the last term in an Idaafa can have arb(\330\247\331\204)):
| The study of Arabic grammar is enjoyable | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\257\330\261\330\247\330\263\330\251\331\217 \331\202\331\210\330\247\330\271\330\257\331\220 \330\247\331\204\331\204\330\272\330\251\331\220 \330\247\331\204\330\271\330\261\330\250\331\212\330\251 \331\205\331\217\331\205\330\252\330\271\330\251\331\214) |

** Agreement
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Agreement
:END:
Since adjectives come after an Idaafa, how do we describe different parts of the Idaafa?
Easy; adjectives must \342\200\234agree\342\200\235 with the word they describe: They must have the same
gender, number, definiteness, and case as the word being described.
| The teacher's new book is in the office. | \342\211\210 | .arb(\331\203\330\252\330\247\330\250\331\217 \330\247\331\204\331\205\330\257\330\261\330\263\331\220 \330\247\331\204\330\254\330\257\331\212\330\257\331\217 \331\201\331\212 \330\247\331\204\331\205\332\251\330\252\330\250\331\220) |
| The new teacher's book is in the office. | \342\211\210 | .arb(\332\251\330\252\330\247\330\250\331\217 \330\247\331\204\331\205\330\257\330\261\330\263\331\220 \330\247\331\204\330\254\330\257\331\212\330\257\331\220 \331\201\331\212 \330\247\331\204\331\205\332\251\330\252\330\250\331\220) |

(Usually only the last term of an Idaafa is actually modified by an adjective.)

** Multiple adjectives
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Multiple-adjectives
:END:
Of-course you can modify multiple words, or use multiple modifiers on the same word!
| the new student of the Americian university | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250\330\251\331\217 \330\247\331\204\330\254\330\247\331\205\330\271\330\251\331\220 \330\247\331\204\330\247\331\205\330\261\331\212\332\251\331\212\330\251\331\220 \330\247\331\204\330\254\330\257\331\212\330\257\330\251\331\217) |
| the student of the new Americian university | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\267\330\247\331\204\330\250\330\251\331\217 \330\247\331\204\330\254\330\247\331\205\330\271\330\251\331\220 \330\247\331\204\330\247\331\205\330\261\331\212\332\251\331\212\330\251\331\220 \330\247\331\204\330\254\330\257\331\212\330\257\330\251\331\220)  |

:More:
When more the one term is modified, the last term is modified first and the first term is modified last.

| The Americian company's tall president's cute son is here. |
| arb(\330\247\330\250\331\206\331\217 \330\261\330\246\331\212\330\263\331\220 \330\247\331\204\330\264\330\261\331\212\332\251\330\251\331\220 \330\247\331\204\331\205\330\261\331\212\332\251\331\212\330\251\331\220 \330\247\331\204\330\267\331\210\331\212\331\204\331\220 \330\254\331\205\331\212\331\204\331\217 \331\207\331\217\331\206\330\247.)                   |
:End:

* COMMENT The Dual: Talking about two things
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-The-Dual-Talking-about-two-things
:END:

We speak about two things or a pair of things often in Arabic
that there is a dedicated construction for them.

The dual is an ending added to a word to make it refer to two instances.
The ending communicates only case.

|            |  <c>   |
| Nominative | arb(\331\200\330\247\331\206\331\222) |
| Genitive   | arb(\331\200\331\212\331\206\331\220) |
| Accusative | arb(\331\200\331\212\331\206\331\216) |

# For example,
# | I saw the directors. | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\261\331\216\330\243\333\214\331\222\330\252\331\217 \330\247\331\204\331\205\331\217\330\257\333\214\330\261\331\212\331\206\331\216.) |

# Note: Duals in an Idaafa as any term except the last term lose the arb(\331\206).
* Sound Plurals
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Sound-Plurals
:END:

A sound plural is an ending added to a word to make it plural.
The ending communicates gender, case, and definiteness.

|         <c>          |    <c>     |          <c>          |
|                      | Nominative | Genitive & Accusative |
|----------------------+------------+-----------------------|
| Masculine indefinite |   arb(\331\200\331\210\331\206\331\216)   |        arb(\331\200\331\212\331\206\331\216)         |
|  Masculine definite  |   arb(\331\200\331\212)   |        arb(\331\200\331\210)         |
|----------------------+------------+-----------------------|
|  Feminine definite   |  arb(\331\200\330\247\330\252\331\214)   |        arb(\331\200\330\247\330\252\331\215)        |
|  Feminine definite   |  arb(\331\200\330\247\330\252\331\217)   |        arb(\331\200\330\247\330\252\331\220)        |
|----------------------+------------+-----------------------|

Notice that the usual small nunation symbols making the arb(\331\206)-sound actual
become the arb(\331\206)-letter! As such, the actual arb(\331\206) is written or not depending
on the general rules of nunnation.

In Arabic, you must learn the plural of each word when you learn its singular form.
However, many words referring to human males have sound plurals.
Likewise, many words ending in arb(\330\251) have a feminine plural
by replacing the final arb(\330\251) with arb(\331\200\330\247\330\252).

For example,

| I saw the directors.               | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\261\331\216\330\243\333\214\331\222\330\252\331\217 \330\247\331\204\331\205\331\217\330\257\333\214\330\261\331\212\331\206\331\216.)        |
| The directors are superb.          | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\247\331\204\331\205\331\217\330\257\331\212\330\261\331\210\331\206\331\216 \331\205\331\205\330\252\330\247\330\262\331\210\331\206\331\216.)     |
| The (female) directors are superb. | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\247\331\204\331\205\331\217\330\257\331\212\330\261\330\247\330\252\331\217 \331\205\331\205\330\252\330\247\330\262\330\247\330\252\331\217.)     |
| I saw the newspaper reporters.     | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\264\330\247\331\207\330\257\330\252\331\217 \331\205\330\261\330\247\330\263\331\204\331\212 \330\247\331\204\330\254\330\261\331\212\330\257\330\251\331\220.) |

# Note: Masculine sound plurals in an Idaafa as any term except the last term
# lose the arb(\331\206).

** Sound Plurals and Possessive Endings
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Sound-Plurals-and-Possessive-Endings
:END:

Remember: Possessive endings make words genitive & definite, and so nunnation cannot apply.

# | teacher       | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\205\331\217\330\257\330\261\330\263)  |
# |---------------+---+-------------|
#+begin_parallel 2
| his teacher   | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\205\331\217\330\257\330\261\330\263\331\207\331\217)  |
| his teachers  | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\205\331\217\330\257\330\261\330\263\331\212\331\207\331\220) |


| my teacher    | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\205\331\217\330\257\330\261\330\263\331\212) |
| my teachers   | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\205\331\217\330\257\330\261\330\263\331\212\331\221) |
#+end_parallel

Let's talk more about possessive endings... ;-)

* Pronouns
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Pronouns
:END:

A pronoun is a word that stands-in for a noun. For example, below we refer to someone
in 3 different ways:
                  | *blue:His* cat saw red:him, and green:he jumped!  |

** Personal Pronouns
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Personal-Pronouns
:END:

A green:personal pronoun replaces a noun that refers to a person (e.g., Jasim ate \342\211\210 he ate),

# Below are Arabic's /personal pronouns/ alongside their English translations.

|    | singular          | plural          |
|----+-------------------+-----------------|
| 1  | arb( \330\247\331\224\331\206\330\247   )   I    | arb(  \331\206\331\216\330\255\331\222\331\206\331\217 )   we |
|----+-------------------+-----------------|
| 2m | arb( \330\247\331\224\331\216\331\206\331\222\330\252\331\216 )  you    | arb( \330\247\331\206\331\222\330\252\331\217\331\205\331\222 )   you |
| 2f | arb( \330\247\331\224\331\216\331\206\331\222\330\252\331\220 )  you    | arb( \330\247\331\206\330\252\331\217\331\206\331\221\331\216 )   you |
|----+-------------------+-----------------|
| 3m | arb( \331\207\331\217\331\210\331\216 )  he/it   | arb( \331\207\331\217\331\205\331\222 )  they  |
| 3f | arb( \331\207\331\220\331\212\331\216 )  she/it | arb( \331\207\331\217\331\206\331\221\331\216 )  they  |
|----+-------------------+-----------------|

When I am talking, the speaker is the \342\200\234first person\342\200\235 (\342\200\2341\342\200\235); when taking about you, then you are the \342\200\234second person\342\200\235 and
may be masculine (\342\200\2342m\342\200\235) or feminine (\342\200\2342f\342\200\235), or a group of you (\342\200\234plural\342\200\235); finally, when talking about someone who is not
here in the conversation, they are in the \342\200\234third person\342\200\235 (\342\200\2343m, 3f\342\200\235).

** Possessive & Object Pronouns
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Possessive-Object-Pronouns
:END:

A blue:possessive pronoun replaces a noun that involves ownership (e.g., Jasim's book \342\211\210 his book), while an
red:object pronoun replaces a noun that is having an action done to it (e.g., I saw Jasim \342\211\210 I saw him.)

In Arabic, possessive and object pronouns are attached pronouns; they are joined to the end of a word: For example,
house arb(\330\250\333\214\330\252) becomes my house arb(\330\250\333\214\330\252\331\220\331\212) and from he helped arb(\331\206\331\216\330\265\331\216\330\261\331\216) we get arb(\331\206\331\216\330\265\331\216\330\261\331\216\331\206\331\212) he helped me.
Arabic's object & possessive pronouns are the same, except for the \342\200\234my/me\342\200\235 case:

|    | singular                   | plural                    |
|----+----------------------------+---------------------------|
| 1  | arb( \331\200\331\220\331\212 ) my; arb(\331\200\331\206\331\212) me | arb( \331\200\331\206\331\216\330\247 )   our/us     |
|----+----------------------------+---------------------------|
| 2m | arb( \331\200\331\203\331\216 )  your/you    | arb( \331\203\331\217\331\205\331\222 )  your/you    |
| 2f | arb( \331\200\331\203\331\220 )  your/you    | arb( \331\203\331\217\331\206\331\221\331\216 )  your/you    |
|----+----------------------------+---------------------------|
| 3m | arb( \331\200\331\216\331\207\331\217 )   his/him     | arb( \331\200\331\207\331\217\331\205\331\222 )   their/them |
| 3f | arb( \331\200\331\216\331\207\331\216\330\247 )   hers/her   | arb( \331\200\331\207\331\217\331\206\331\221\331\216 )    their/them |
|----+----------------------------+---------------------------|

The dhamma of the endings arb(\331\200\331\207\331\217 \330\214 \331\200\331\207\331\217\331\205 \330\214 \331\200\331\207\331\217\331\206\331\221\331\216) becomes a kasra whenver these endings come after a kasra or a arb(\331\212).
| an office     | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\205\332\251\330\252\330\250\331\214)    |
| in an office  | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\201\331\212 \331\205\332\251\330\252\330\250\331\220) |
| in his office | \342\211\210 | arb(\331\201\331\212 \331\205\332\251\330\252\330\250\331\220\331\207\331\220)  |

* COMMENT Notes on Pronouns
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-Notes-on-Pronouns
:END:

Note 0: Pronouns do not inflect for case.

Note 2:
The possessive arb(\331\200\331\212) ending does not allow words to inflect for case, but other
pronoun endings do not affect case inflections.
| a beautiful house   | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\250\331\212\330\252\331\214 \330\254\331\205\331\212\331\204\331\214)  |
| his beautiful house | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\250\331\212\330\252\331\217\331\207\331\217 \330\247\331\204\330\254\331\205\331\212\331\204\331\217) |
| my beautiful house  | \342\211\210 | arb(\330\250\331\212\330\252\331\212 \330\247\331\204\330\254\331\205\331\212\331\204\331\217) |


Note 1: When we attach a possessive pronoun to a noun, we are indicating who owns it,
thereby making it definite ---and so words with possessive endings never have nunation.

* Todo COMMENT idaafa & pronoun endings                              :Page_50_of_564:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-idaafa-pronoun-endings
:END:

In Part C of the last chapter, I mentioned that Arab grammarians consider the possessive pronouns to
be in an idaafa relationship with the noun to which they are attached. For exam ple\357\277\275 is an idaafa.
The first term is \357\277\275 and the second term of the idaafa is the pronoun suffix \357\277\275- Because the possessive
pronouns are considered definite, they define the noun to which they are attached. It is quite common for
an idaafa with two, threp, four or m ore terms to end with a pronoun suffix. The entire idaafa will be
definite. For ex am ple \357\277\275_;o!; ...>:.;v. \357\277\275 \342\200\234the offi ce ofthe director ofyour com pany\342\200\234. The word 4.S_;o!;
is defini te because of the suffiX rS\302\267 Since 4.S _;o!; is definite, the entire idaafa is definite -j ust as if the word
4.S _;o!; had been defined by having the definite article attached - ;s \357\277\275I ...>:..l.<l \357\277\275 \342\200\234the offi ce of the
director of your com pany\342\200\234.
* COMMENT TODO Pausual form regarding \331\200\330\247\331\213, which sounds like a short 'a' sound!
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-TODO-Pausual-form-regarding-which-sounds-like-a-short-'a'-sound
:END:
54/564
* COMMENT Past Tense Verbs 89
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-Past-Tense-Verbs-89
:END:

Just as nouns, and adjectives, change with case; likewise, verbs change with who
is doing them (i.e., number and gender).  This is known as conjugation.
# Since conjugation tells us WHO did the action, personal pronouns are not
# used, except for emphasis.

The simplest form of a verb is its conjugation for arb(\331\207\331\210), and it is used as
the base for all other conjugations. This is the form one sees when learning a
verb for the first time, or in a dictionary.

Arabic verbs are conjugated in the past tense by adding suffixes to the base form
of the verb. All verbs are conjugated in the same way! So if you can conjugate one
Arabic verb in the past tense, then you can conjugate them all.
# In contrast, English does not have a uniform approach; e.g.,
# words /to eat/ and /to sleep/ become /ate/ and /slept./

| <c> |   <c>    |  <c>   |
|     | singular | plural |
|-----+----------+--------|
|  1  |  arb(\331\200\331\222\330\252\331\217)  | arb(\331\200\331\222\331\206\330\247) |
|-----+----------+--------|
| 2m  |  arb(\331\200\331\222\330\252\331\216)  | arb(\331\200\331\222\330\252\331\217\331\205) |
| 2f  |  arb(\331\200\331\222\330\252\331\220)  | arb(\331\200\331\222\330\252\331\217\331\206\331\221\331\216) |
|-----+----------+--------|
| 3m  |  arb(\331\200\331\200\331\216\331\200)  | arb(\331\200\331\210\330\247  |
| 3f  |  arb(\331\200\331\216\330\252\331\222)  | arb(\331\200\331\222\331\206\331\216) |
|-----+----------+--------|

For example, the word to study arb(\330\257\331\216\330\261\331\216\330\263\331\216) (literally: he studied) takes the form
arb(\330\257\331\216\330\261\331\216\330\263\331\222\330\252\331\217\331\205) when talking to a group of people (plural 2m, above).  This is
accomplished by adding arb(\331\200\331\222\330\252\331\217\331\205) to the base arb(\330\257\331\216\330\261\331\216\330\263\331\216).

Note: With the ending arb(\331\200\331\210\330\247), the arb(\330\247\331\224) is not pronounced.

* Kinds of Arabic Verbs
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Kinds-of-Arabic-Verbs
:END:

+ Sound Verbs :: Verbs with no \arb{\331\210} or \arb{\331\212} as a root.
+ Defective Verbs :: Verbs whose last root is either \arb{\331\210} or \arb{\331\212}.
+ Hollow Verbs :: Verbs whose middle root is either \arb{\331\210} or \arb{\331\212}.
+ Assimilated Verbs :: Verbs whose first root is either \arb{\331\210} or \arb{\331\212}.
+ Doubled Verbs :: Verbs whose second and third roots are the same.

These are not a big deal. They happen often enough to get names.

* COMMENT TEMPLATE conjugation :reference:reuse:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: COMMENT-TEMPLATE-conjugation
:END:

| <c> |   <c>    |  <c>   |
|     | singular | plural |
|-----+----------+--------|
|  1  |  arb(}   | \arb{) |
|-----+----------+--------|
| 2m  |  arb(}   | \arb{) |
| 2f  |  arb(}   | \arb{) |
|-----+----------+--------|
| 3m  |  arb(}   | \arb{) |
| 3f  |  arb(}   | \arb{) |
|-----+----------+--------|

* Local Variables :ignore:
:PROPERTIES:
:CUSTOM_ID: Local-Variables
:END:

# alias emacsclient="/usr/local/Cellar/emacs-plus@29/29.0.90/bin/emacsclient"
# export PATH="/usr/local/Cellar/emacs-plus@29/29.0.90/bin/:$PATH" # emacs & emacsclient

# Ensure EmacsClient can connect to running emacs, enable automatic reverts for whenever PDFs change.

# Local Variables:
# eval: (server-start)
# eval: (global-auto-revert-mode)
# eval: (add-hook 'after-save-hook 'org-latex-export-to-latex nil t)
# eval: (compile "latexmk -pdf -pvc -pdflatex='lualatex -shell-escape -interaction nonstopmode'")
# End: